Public Health Interface and Promotion of Good Health: Corporate social responsibility: Entering into sustainable partnerships with governments and host communities in order to facilitate improvements in health may form part of a company's corporate social responsibility programme. Such effective partnerships with stakeholders, based on consultation and respect for host culture, can take many forms but does not necessarily involve building expensive facilities or infrastructure. Increasingly, corporate social responsibility health projects are related to preventive health care and may build on existing government or community health programmes involving local capacity building (See: OGP 200016). Good social responsibility programmes will necessitate professional risk assessment, extensive dialogue and management of expectations and a good understanding of local context. Ultimately, corporate social responsibility may be seen as mitigation of social risk, as well as forming the basis of the industry's licence to operate. To most companies it is just the right way of doing business. The International Standard ISO 26000:2010, Guidance on Social Responsibility, provides globally relevant guidance for organizations of all types based on international consensus among expert representatives of the main stakeholder groups. The ISO 26000:2010 Standard only contains voluntary guidance on social responsibility and is therefore not used as a certification standard. Food and Water Safety Standards: Food and water safety presents unique challenges in field operations in extremely remote settings, but needs to be actively managed even in urban areas. During construction phases, groups of workers live in temporary, mobile camps where kitchen facilities are continuously built and dismantled and there is significant risk to workers of both morbidity and mortality from microbial, chemical and physical contamination of the food and water supply. In addition, there is substantial company reputational risk associated with insufficient food and water safety planning. Foodand water-related illnesses could, potentially, cause an operation to be shut down. For guidance on how to organize a food and water safety management programme see OGP-IPIECA 200917. Requirements and standards for food and water safety need to be included in tenders from all suppliers of goods and services pertaining to food and water. The standards should benefit all personnel on site, including all contractors. Sewage and Sanitation: Sanitation: Disease-causing organisms, including viruses, bacteria and eggs or larvae of parasites may all be present in human faeces. These microorganisms may enter the body through faecally-contaminated food, water, and eating and cooking utensils, and by contact with other contaminated objects. Diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid are spread in this way and are major causes of sickness and death. Some fly species and cockroaches are attracted to, or breed, in faeces. High fly densities will increase the risk of transmission of trachoma and Shigella dysentery. Intestinal worm infections (hookworm, whipworm and others) are transmitted through contact with soil that has been contaminated with faeces, and may spread rapidly where open defecation occurs and people walk barefoot. Facilities for disposing of excreta must be designed and built to avoid contamination of water sources that will be used for drinking-water. Any successful measure for managing human excreta includes the principles of separation, containment and destruction. Whatever form of toilet is designed and built, it must fulfil these three functions to minimize health risks. To ensure a sustainable solution, it is important to take into account local custom as well as the availability of water. Some field operations may need to have several solutions in the same camp, e.g. simple screened cubicles with concrete slabs and pour-flush toilets, as well as Western-style water closets. Hand washing facilities should always include hot and cold water, liquid soap, disposable towels and foot-pedal operated or other non-touch, lidded disposal units. Stickers or other information on the importance of hand washing should be available. Communal facilities should be of a sufficient number and be regularly cleaned by staff who are adequately trained and equipped. Clean latrines help to encourage proper use of the facilities; dirty latrines inevitably lead to carelessness and unsanitary defecation practices in and around them. Routine inspection by supervisors is necessary to ensure that cleaning standards are maintained. Latrines should be sited no more than 50 metres from users living quarters, to encourage their use, but sufficiently far away (at least 6 metres) to reduce problems from odours and pests. Sullage: Wastewater from kitchens, bathrooms and laundries is called sullage. It can contain disease- causing organisms, particularly from soiled clothing, but its main health hazard occurs when it collects in poorly drained places and causes pools of organically polluted water that may serve as breeding places for Culex mosquitoes. This genus of mosquitoes transmits some viruses as well as the parasitic disease lymphatic filariasis. Mosquitoes that transmit malaria do not breed in polluted water. Solid waste: Rats, dogs, cats, birds and other animals, which may be carriers (reservoirs) of disease-causing organisms, are attracted to discarded food, clothing, medical dressings and other components of solid waste. Small rainwater collections in solid waste such as discarded car tyres or oil drums may serve as the breeding places for Aedes mosquitoes, vectors of the dengue virus. Medical waste from field site clinics may present a special challenge and could typically contain the following categories of waste: infectious waste; pathological waste; sharps (i.e. syringes, blades, glass, etc.); pharmaceutical waste; chemical waste; waste with high heavy metal content; and pressurized containers. The safe and appropriate disposal of medical waste is critical to preventing or minimizing the risk of transmitting microorganisms and potential infections. Storage, Collection, Treatment and Disposal of Sullage and Solid Waste: Management of health risks related to storage, collection, treatment and disposal of sullage and solid waste will depend on the source, quantity and nature of wastewater and solid waste as well as soil, topography, climate and other factors that may determine which options are possible. Legislation controlling the handling, collection and disposal of medical waste is extensive and varies by country. Sharp items, such as hypodermic needles and syringes, cannulas and surgical blades, should be disposed of in dedicated, sealed after-use containers. Contaminated consumables such as bandages, gauzes, plasters, cotton tampons, surgical dressings and gloves, must be stored separately from non-medical waste and shall be disposed of separately as per local laws and regulations, or incinerated. It should be compulsory for all personnel handling medical waste to use appropriate PPE, such as gloves (disposable and one-time use); face mask (covering the mouth and nose); protection glasses (for eye protection); and long-sleeve coveralls. A complete description of the treatment and disposal of sullage and solid waste is beyond the scope of this document. For further information on the topics in this section, see the references below: (a) Water supply and sanitation assessment and programme design; (b) Solid waste management; (c) Surface water and waste water drainage; (d) Management of medical waste.